The History and Types of Indian Metal Crafts

The history of Indian metal crafts reflects the country’s rich cultural heritage and the creativity of its artisans.

Indian artisans have consistently shown remarkable skill in metal crafts and creativity since the ancient Indus Valley civilisation.

This is evident in the intricate metalwork of both the Chola and Mughal periods.

This rich tradition shows the artistic achievements of the past.

It also highlights the ongoing importance of metal crafts in India’s culture and history.

Indian metal crafts have reached the level of fine art and are important in both religious practices and community life.

Some of the metals used are brass, copper, iron, silver, gold, bell metal, zinc, and bronze.

Metal objects can endure beyond the range of natural life and become both an inheritance and a contribution to culture.

Let’s learn more about Indian metal crafts with DESIblitz.

Origins

The earliest discovery of metal use by humans occurred when people observed that heating ore-bearing rocks in a fire caused the metals within them to melt.

They noticed that the melted metals turned solid as they cooled down.

This made them realise that metals could be shaped and used for different things.

It is believed that copper is one of the earliest metals to be formed. It dates back to 6000 to 5000 BC.

The controlled alloying of copper with tin to make bronze has been thought to have occurred about 3800 BC.

One of the earliest pieces of evidence of Indian metal crafts comes from the Indus Valley Civilisation.

In their comprehensive study, Bridget and Raymond Allchin highlight the sophistication of Indus Valley metallurgy:

“Excavations at Harappa and Mohenjo Daro have revealed advanced techniques in metallurgy, including the use of copper, bronze, and lead.”

In their book, The Rise of Civilisation in India and Pakistan (1982), they state:

“The craftsmanship displayed in artefacts such as the bronze dancing girl figurine demonstrates a high degree of skill and artistic sensibility.”

The earliest archaeological evidence of metalwork in Rajasthan comes from a pre-Harappan site, Kalibangan.

It is situated on the southern bank of the ancient river Saraswati, now in the Ganganagar district.

Copper beads, bangles, weapons, and tools in these areas indicate that the art of metalwork in Rajasthan was known as early as 3000-2800 BC.

Metal can be melted into wires and sheets, and with casting and manipulation, they can be moulded in any shape possible.

Metal can be bent, twisted, pierced, poured, stretched, compressed, mixed, and combined with other materials.

In ancient times, the metal used for casting icons was panchaloha, a mixture of five metals- copper, brass, lead, silver, and gold.

Due to the high cost of precious metals, the addition of silver and gold to alloys has been almost eliminated for decorative sculptures.

Figures for worship, however, contain a small quantity of silver and gold.

In north India, an alloy of eight metals, ‘astadhatu’ (gold, silver, copper, zinc, lead, tin, iron, and mercury), was used.

The Mughal Period

The Mughal period saw a fusion of Persian and Indian styles in metalwork.

The art of ‘koftgari’, or metal inlay work, became prominent.

The Mughals, who had a deep appreciation for both art and craftsmanship, greatly favoured this technique, and it became a symbol of status and power.

The finished pieces were often polished to a high sheen, enhancing the brilliance of the gold or silver against the dark metal.

The finest work in the Mughal era is executed in inlay, in which grooves forming the lines of the design are cut to leave gripping configurations in the cavities.

The Red Fort in Delhi and the Taj Mahal in Agra are both iconic symbols of Mughal architecture.

They feature exquisite metalwork, including elaborately designed gates, door panels, and jalis made of brass and other metals.

Some of the Mughal decorative metalwork was not limited to architecture.

The Mughal court demanded luxury and elegance in all aspects of life, which led to the creation of a wide range of metal artefacts.

These included finely crafted utensils, bowls, and dishes made from precious metals like gold and silver.

They were often inlaid with jewels or decorated with intricate engravings and relief work.

Hookahs, an essential part of Mughal court culture, were also made with ornate metal designs, often encrusted with gemstones.

Dhokra Craft

One of the most renowned Indian metal crafts is Dhokra or Dhokra art, practised primarily by the groups of Bihar, West Bengal, Orissa, and Madhya Pradesh.

This ancient technique involves the cire-perdue (lost-wax casting) method.

This includes where a wax model is coated with clay, then heated to remove the wax and pour molten metal into the mould.

The result is a highly detailed and often ornate metal figure.

Dhokra art is known for its tribal motifs and figures.

Common themes include animals, deities, and everyday scenes from tribal life.

The designs are often abstract and symbolic, reflecting the cultural and spiritual beliefs of the communities.

Metal workers in this craft fall into two categories.

These categories comprise those who live in or near tribal areas and itinerant casters known as ‘dhokras’.

The dhokras travel from village to village on bullock carts, setting up temporary foundries by the roadside to make their products.

The craft is a crucial part of the cultural identity of the cohorts that practice it.

It reflects their artistic heritage, traditional skills, and the stories passed down through generations.

Bidri Work

Bidri work is another significant tribal metal craft, originating from Bidar in Karnataka.

Bidriware has a rich history that dates back to the mediaeval period.

It is believed to have been influenced by Persian and Turkish metalwork traditions brought to India by the Deccan Sultanates.

The craft flourished under the patronage of the Bahmani Sultanate and later the Bidar Sultanate.

The Mughal influence is evident in the floral and geometric patterns typical of Bidriware items.

These intricately designed objects were often used in the Mughal court for everyday items like hookah bases and caskets.

This craft involves inlaying thin sheets of pure silver into a zinc and copper alloy base.

The basic material of Bidriware is a zinc alloy with small proportions of oxidised non-ferrous metals.

The designs often feature floral patterns, geometric shapes, and intricate motifs, which are etched into the metal before the silver is inlaid.

The result is a striking contrast between the black base and the shiny silver.

This makes Bidriware items highly valued for their beauty and craftsmanship.

Bidri work is used to create a wide range of items, including vases, bowls, trays, jewellery boxes, and decorative plates.

Bidar and Hyderabad are known centres of Bidri work.

Kundankari 

Kundankari dates back to the Mughal era.

It was highly favoured by the royalty and nobility for its exquisite craftsmanship.

The term “kundan” refers to the process of setting stones without any visible metal, allowing the pure brilliance of the gemstones to shine through.

Kundankari is a traditional Indian jewellery-making technique renowned for its intricate designs and the use of precious stones.

Originating from the regions of Rajasthan and Gujarat, this craft is celebrated for its opulence and artistry.

Traditional Kundankari pieces are crafted using gold or silver, providing a rich backdrop that enhances the beauty of the gemstones.

Artisans set precious stones including diamonds or emeralds into the metal without using visible prongs, creating intricate designs.

The back of the piece is decorated with colourful enamel work, known as meenakari.

The final step involves polishing the jewellery, resulting in a stunning piece that showcases the brilliance of the stones and detailed craftsmanship.

Kundan’s inlay work was popular in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries.

It started as an art form in Delhi and its surrounding area before becoming a craft of inlaying hard surfaces like jade with gold wire, and precious, and semi-precious stones.

Theva Work

Theva work is a traditional Indian metalcraft renowned for its intricate and vibrant designs.

Originating from the Kutch region of Gujarat, Theva work is particularly known for its use in jewellery and decorative items.

Theva work dates back to the 16th century.

It developed during the reign of the Kutch rulers and has since evolved into a distinctive form of metalcraft.

The unique combination of metal and coloured glass gives Theva work its distinctive look.

It can be described as a fusion applique of a pierced patterned worksheet of gold foil, which is transferred onto the transparent coloured glass.

Theva work involves a detailed process where a thin sheet of gold or silver is used as the base.

Artisans place coloured glass pieces onto the metal and fuse them with heat.

The glass pieces are usually red, green, or blue.

They come in various shapes like round, oval, drop-shaped, square, rectangular, or octagonal, with the largest size being about six centimetres.

They then etch intricate patterns inspired by nature or tradition onto the metal.

Finally, the piece is polished, creating a beautiful blend of metal and vibrant glass.

Koftgari

Damascening, or Koftgari, is a traditional Indian metalworking technique that involves inlaying gold or silver wire into the surface of iron or steel.

It is popular in Kashmir, Gujarat, Sialkot (now in Pakistan), and the Nizam territory.

As previously mentioned, this was popular during the Mughal era.

Mark Zebrowski, in Gold, Silver, and Bronze from Mughal India (1997), notes:

“Mughal metalwork, particularly Koftgari, exemplifies the intricate inlay techniques where gold and silver were inlaid into iron objects.

“This fusion of styles resulted in highly decorative and functional items, reflecting the opulence of the Mughal court.”

Ornamental ironwork, brass doors, and intricate lattice screens, known as ‘jalis’ were commonly used in Mughal buildings.

This art form, which flourished during the Mughal period, is known for its intricate and delicate designs, often featuring floral and geometric patterns.

The process begins with the preparation of the metal surface which is carefully etched to create grooves or channels.

Fine gold or silver wire is then hammered into these grooves, creating a pattern that contrasts beautifully with the dark steel or iron background.

Koftgari was commonly used to decorate weapons like swords, daggers, and armour, making them functional and visually striking.

In the 20th century, large quantities of damascened works were produced in Gujarat, Sialkot, Jaipur, Alwar, Sirohi, and Lahore.

The items were mainly steel plates engraved with a minute arabesque design, into which silver and gold wires were hammered.

This kind of inlay work is known as the Nashan or deep Koftgari.

Sometimes both gold and silver are used, and the design is known as Ganga-Jamuna.

The water of the Ganga is described in the literature as white, while that of the Yamuna is deep blue.

Therefore, when the same patterns of two colours run side by side, the object is said to be of the Ganga-Yamuna pattern.

Indian metal crafts are a testament to the artistic creativity and cultural depth of the country’s indigenous communities.

Kundankari, Theva, Bidriware, and Dhokra reflect exceptional skill and creativity.

Each craft, with its unique story, techniques, and designs, contributes to the rich tapestry of India’s artistic heritage.

Despite their rich heritage, tribal metal crafts face challenges due to modernisation, economic pressures, and competition from mass-produced goods.

New technologies and materials are replacing traditional methods.

Artisans also struggle with high material costs and competition from cheaper, mass-produced items.

By supporting tribal artisans and promoting their crafts, there is hope that these invaluable skills and cultural practices continue to thrive for future generations.

As we appreciate the beauty and craftsmanship of Indian metalwork, we also contribute to the preservation of a vital part of India’s cultural identity.

Through both local and global recognition, these timeless Indian metal crafts can thrive and continue to enrich our lives with their historical and artistic significance.